Wednesday, July 29, 2009

Validity, Reliability, & Ethics

Here is the last leg of my Research class. As always, feedback is more than welcome!

VALIDITY

Validity refers to “the extent to which a measure reflects only the desired construct without contamination from other systematically varying constructs” (Hoyle, Harris & Judd, 2002, p. 83). The fewer the number of systematic errors, those errors that have the potential to distort the study’s conclusions, the higher the validity of the study (p. 81). There are three components to validity when looking at a research project: construct validity, internal validity, and external validity. The following sections will discuss them with respect to the research study.

Construct Validity

Construct validity refers to the extent of which “both the independent and dependent variables accurately reflect or measure the constructs of interest (Hoyle, Harris & Judd, 2002, p. 32). In this case, the objective of the research study is to assess the impact of American media on young Latin American women ages 16-24. While the survey designed for this research study appears to be an effective way to measure the research questions at hand, it may be impossible to say if this is truly valid. Potentially there may be constructs of disinterest, or things we would rather not measure. There is also potential for random errors of measurement. For instance, there is a possibility of a mis-click on the survey, or the participant may not be feeling well that day.

Internal Validity

Internal validity refers to “the extent to which we can infer causal connections from an association between two variables” (Hoyle, Harris & Judd, 2002, p. 35-36). Such causal inference is possible only by conducting a randomized experiment, with random assignment of the independent variable, to prevent threats to internal validity (Hoyle, Harris & Judd, 2002, p. 40). Hoyle, Harris, and Judd (2002) state, “The chief strength of randomized experiments is their internal validity, which is accomplished through the researcher’s assumption of control over the independent variables in the design” (p. 38). The experimental design of this research study will deal with individual difference variables. Thus, casual connections will be a difficult to infer, and that is why a random experiment will be used so as not to threaten the internal validity.

External Validity

External validity refers to “the extent to which one can generalize the results of the research to the populations and settings of interest in the hypothesis” (Hoyle, Harris & Judd, 2002, p. 33). In this research, using a sample of populations from Mexico, Nicaragua, and Chile has external validity strengths. Because the three countries span across all the Latin American countries on the North and South American continents it will be easier to generalize the results of the research. However, the external validity is limited to the capital cities of those countries, and therefore may not represent those who live in significantly poorer cities in those countries.

RELIABILITY

Reliability refers to the extent to which “a measure is defined as the extent to which it is free from random error” (Hoyle, Harris & Judd, 2002, p. 83). As previously stated, validity refers to “the extent to which a measure reflects only the desired construct without contamination from other systematically varying constructs” (p. 83). Therefore, reliability is a prerequisite to validity.
Hoyle, Harris & Judd (2002) note three important influences on reliability. First, longer measures are more reliable than shorter ones. Second, a larger range of variation among participants in the survey leads to higher reliability. This will add to reliable distinctions to be made in the research study. Lastly, freedom from distractions, misunderstandings, etc. will help decrease a person’s tendencies to make random errors (Hoyle, Harris & Judd, 2002, p. 85).

ETHICS

The concluding consideration of the design of this research study is a discussion on ethics, since when conducting research with human participants, it is essential to protect their rights, safety, and dignity (Hoyle, Harris & Judd, 2002, p. 70). This project will involve persons ranging in age from 16 to 24, and therefore may cause some concerns for those who are under the age of 18. The main ethical issue addressed in this research design includes confidentiality of the persons who are participating.

Confidentiality of testing results will be communicated to the students in the introduction, with testing results being secured and viewed only by the researcher. The results, however, will potentially be shared with the larger public. Because the measurement procedure involves an online survey, anonymity will not be difficult to establish. By using this method the researcher will not be able to identify the persons involved.

The three ethical principles underlying federal regulations are respect for persons, beneficence, and justice (Hoyle, Harris & Judd, 2002, p. 48), which are discussed in the subsequent sections within the context of organizational research.

Respect

“Respect for persons incorporates at least two ethical convictions: first, that individuals should be treated as autonomous agents, and second, that persons with diminished autonomy are entitled to protection” (Hoyle, Harris & Judd, 2002, p. 48). Thus, all research participants should have the right to choose whether they want to participate in the study or not, without any adverse consequences for non-participation.

This research project addresses these two issues by inviting those who are eligible to participate, and it is clearly stated in the introduction to all participants that their involvement is completely voluntary. In addition, to ensure that people in the study have participated of their own free will and choice, an informed consent form can be created to accompany each online survey. One draw back to this process is that in order to get true “informed” consent, the full detail of the purpose of the study would need to be disclosed to participants prior to gathering feedback (Hoyle, Harris & Judd, 2002, p. 48). This could have a negative impact on the reliability of the data collected from the study. The risks versus benefits of obtaining informed consent would need to be weighed before that level of detail was shared with study participants.

Ideally, participants will be given information about the general nature of the research in the introduction, and avoiding active deception, they will not be given precise behaviors or the hypothesis before the research study to prevent demand characteristics or expectancy effects from contaminating the validity of the study (Hoyle, Harris & Judd, 2002, p. 56). Thus, participants will be subjected to some degree of deception by omission, though it seems unlikely that it would lead them to behave in ways that they would regret doing, and hence probably does not pose a significant ethical problem (Hoyle, Harris & Judd, 2002, p. 57).

Beneficence

In a research context, “the ethical principle of beneficence means that one should net harms one’s participants and that benefits to participants should be maximized while possible harms are minimized” (Hoyle, Harris & Judd, 2002 p. 51). This typically involves a risk-benefit analysis of the research study with respect to potential harm incurred by participants versus the potential benefits accrued by conducting the research (Hoyle, Harris & Judd, 2002, p. 52).

In evaluating this research project, it is clear that minimal harm can come to participants as a result of their participation. However, safeguards have been integrated into the research design to address any sort of potential risk. First, their participation is completely voluntary. Second, their identities are protected because there will be no way to connect specific questionnaire responses with an individual respondent. The topic of the study does not ask them to disclose significant personal information, nor does it ask them to divulge extremely specific information relating to their experiences that will expose them to a certain level of pain or anxiety related to their experience.

While there are some potential risks associated with the design of this project, the design could also lead to participants realizing certain benefits from the data that is gathered. The information that is shared by participants will be used to evaluate the overall affects of American media on a growing population of young Latin American women. Given that there is no current, specific information about this, participants in the research project will have an opportunity to contribute to how American media affects an international audience.

Justice

The study group that is chosen to participate in this research project will be randomly chosen from a group of students in three demographic areas (Mexico City, Mexico, Managua, Nicagragua, and Santiago, Chile). The idea of justice in social science research means that the researcher should not take advantage of overburdened populations simply because they are convenient and available (Hoyle, Harris & Judd, 2002, p. 71). Overburdened populations are populations at a disadvantage, such as the poor, the very sick, or the institutionalized (Hoyle, Harris & Judd, 2002, p. 54). While this study does use a group of students who live in third-world countries, they are not at a significant disadvantage.

Saturday, July 25, 2009

I'm almost there!

This is what most of my summer has been about. It has been one of the biggest challenges I have had so far. But I know that through Divine help I have been able to type the words as they should be. Enjoy reading and leave some feedback. I would like to know what you think :)

Running Head: MEDIA IMPACT

AMERICAN MEDIA IMPACT ON YOUNG WOMEN IN LATIN AMERICAN COUNTRIES

Literature Review, Hypothesis, & Reference List

Brandy A. Lee

ORGL 501: Methods of Organizational Research

Dr. Adrian Popa

July 11, 2009

ABSTRACT

For centuries the image of a large, fairly obese woman has been a symbol of health and fertility in Hispanic cultures throughout the continents of North and South America. This is evidenced in everything from sculpture, to fertility goddesses, to paintings, to the woman as she is today. In a country where more has been better, women aren’t afraid of being robust. However, time, technology, and the American media are all taking affect on history, and they may soon re-write the books of what a Hispanic woman is supposed to look like.

Movies, music, Internet information, and television are taking these countries by storm with images of not only luxurious lives, but women who are abnormally thin and appear to be picture perfect. In a house in Central America built with plywood paneling and a tin roof, one will find a television even though the people can barely afford to put food on the table. In more urban parts of the Santiago Region in Chile, SA, a passerby will find multiple satellite dishes so the occupants can get “American movies.”

This paper will explore the impact American media is having on body image of young women ages 16-24 in three Latin American countries. It will also add to current information that American media has altered the mind-set of young Latin American women by portraying a picture-perfect, woman with out curves, who most often doesn't exist.

INTRODUCTION

For centuries, the image of a large, fairly obese woman has been a symbol of health and fertility in Hispanic cultures throughout the continents of North and South America (Lewis, 2005). This is evidenced in everything from sculpture, to fertility goddesses, to paintings, to the woman as she is today. In countries where more has been better, women aren’t afraid of being robust. However, time, technology, and the American media are all taking effect on history, and they may soon rewrite the books of what a Hispanic woman is supposed to look like.

Movies, music, Internet information, and television are taking these countries by storm with images of not only luxurious lives, but also women who are abnormally thin and appear to be picture perfect (Lewis, 2005). In a house built with plywood paneling and a tin roof, one will find a television even though the residents can barely afford to put food on the table. In more urban parts of the Santiago Region in Chile, SA, a passerby will find multiple satellite dishes so the occupants can get “American movies.”

Using the Socio-Cultural Tradition, this paper will explore the impact American media is having on body image of young women ages 16-24 in three South American countries. It will address the following research questions:

1) Do you compare yourself to women you see in the media, namely those from American media?

2) What influences do young women turn to for what defines an acceptable body size?

3) Has American media created a new definition of an acceptable body image in Latin American countries?

This research will add to current information that American media has altered the mind-set of young women by portraying a picture-perfect woman without curves, who most often doesn't exist (Lewis, 2005; Barton, 2006; Bay-Cheng, Zucker, Stewart, & Pomerleau, 2002); Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006;Encarnacion-Garcia, 2001; McArthur, Holbert, & Pena, 2005). It will also add to limited research about how the American media impacts the body image of young women in Latin American countries.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Femininity is interpreted many ways, such as: body shape, size, and proportions; qualities such as appearance; more specifically voice and complexion; and aspects of how one dresses, accessorizes, and does their hair (Bay-Cheng, Zucker, Stewart, and Pomerleau, 2002). It’s the picture of self — a body image —that is carried in the mind’s eye, and it goes beyond pounds or inches (Ahmed, 1999). Many of these characteristics and the current glamorization of thinness, however, are only a recent change within the last century or so (Ahmed, 1999). Taking a step back into time will help people better understand how beauty and attractiveness change over time.

Historically, thin was not always in. An examination of artwork throughout history shows quite a different standard of beauty than is seen in 2009. Early paintings and statues show women “with full breasts, curvaceous hips, well developed arms and legs, and large waists with rounded stomachs” (Ahmed, 1999). According to Ahmed, things have started to shift since Victorian times. In the early 1900s, it was the hourglass shape that was in. In the 1950s, it was the full hips and breasts of Marilyn Monroe, which would be considered fat in today’s standards. During the 1970s there was a shift to a more linear, straight line of fashions. Then in the 80s and 90s the models got younger and thinner than any time in the past. (Ahmed, 1999).

Historically, the Latino community in particular has viewed a curvier, larger body size as acceptable (Lewis, 2005; Encarnation-Garcia, 2001). Additionally, art has depicted obese women as a sign of health and fertility, where an overly thin woman was seen as “la fea” (ugly). However, studies suggest that any culture or ethnic group where the Western thin ideal is adopted as the standard of beauty can be influenced (Choate, 2005). In Mexico, Central, and South America billboards feature mostly upper class looking, blue-eyed blondes, symbolically linking them with status, and European and/or “Anglo” looking women (Lewis, 2005). Research done in Australia suggests American shows such as Desperate Housewives and other TV soap operas influence how young girls see themselves and make them desperate for a body size few can healthily achieve (Persico, 2005; Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006). Ahmed states, “Large breasts, narrow hips and no stomach is unattainable by 95% of grown women” (1999).

In Sizing Up the Problem: The Politics of Body Image for Women of Color, Hurst writes about a “strange tribe of slim-hipped white women that has colonized the fashion industry” (1997). She goes on to talk about how white women define desirability, success, and what appropriate dress is for everything (1997). Mexican-born Nina Ruelas struggled with bulimia for 33 years and agrees that, “women of color associate style with power and placement” (Hurst, 1997).

All of this has been portrayed through images in the media (movies, television, music, etc). The average woman in the United States is 5’4” and weighs 142 pounds (Choate). Slate.com reporter Seth Stevenson states that models weigh and average of 23% less than the average woman. Twenty years ago, models only weighed an average of eight percent less (2005). Craig and Bolls write in their paper, Cognitive and Emotional Correlates of Social Comparison And Cognitive Dissonance During Exposure to TV Ads, that while viewing the images, a woman begins to compare herself and when she doesn’t measure up she begins to experience cognitive dissonance (2003; Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006).

The National Foundation on Media and the Family reports that at age 13, 53% of American girls are “unhappy with their bodies.” This jumps to 78% by the time the girls become 17 years old. Teens that watched soaps and TV shows that emphasized the ideal body type reported a higher sense of body dissatisfaction. Also the reading of magazines for teen girls or women, and identification with television stars, models, or athletes were all positively correlated with body dissatisfaction (2002; Prabu, Cortese, & Liu, 2003).

Studies done in the 2000s show a larger influence of media on body dissatisfaction than from the 1990s. Grabe & Hyde have revealed that it doesn’t matter what type of media exposure these women get, if the image is appearance-focused, it’s going to affect them (2008; Prabu, Cortese, & Liu, 2003). It has been shown that this can adversely affect a woman’s quality of life, because of the amount of money, time, and energy spent on beauty enhancement, which can restrict her from developing other aspects of her identity (Choate, 2005). There is also the factor of vulnerable women, who are influenced more by the thin media portrayals than others (Prabu, Cortese, & Liu, 2003).

The Socio-Cultural Tradition is based on the premise that as people talk, they produce and reproduce culture (Griffin, 2006). This tradition bridges the gap between us and them when perceptual worlds collide (Griffin, 2006). Researchers contend that body image issues stem from messages conveyed by various forces such as “cultural milieu, personal interactions, religious beliefs, print and film media, and social expectations” (McArthur, Holbert, & Pena, 2005). It is assumed the media plays a leading role in setting “the normative standards for thinness, attractiveness, and beauty” (Prabu, Cortese, & Liu, 2003; Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006).

Research in the area of the impact media has had on body image has focused mainly on Caucasian females. In their study Linking Femininity, Weight Concern, and Mental Health Among Latin, Black, and White Women, Bay-Cheng, Zucker, Stewart, and Pomerleau address this oversight. They found, “At the bivariate level, embodied femininity, weight concern, and depressive symptomatology were positively intercorrelated among Latina respondents” (36).

Furthermore, in Sociocultural Differences in Eating Disordered Behaviors and Body Image Perception: A Comparison between Puerto Rican and American College Women, Encarnation-Garcia only makes a comparison between American and Puerto Rican women and eating disorders. There is no mention of the impact of media on these decisions. However, it does highlight that, “Risk factors for eating disorders are greater among minority females who are younger, heavier, better educated, and more identified with American, middle-class values (Encarnation-Garcia, 2001). Choate’s statement that anyone who has contact with Western media will be impacted is therefore bolstered. Encarnation-Garcia adds that this exposure may lead to the development of pathological eating attitudes and abnormal eating behaviors (2001).

IMPORTANCE OF STUDY

Given the growing influence of American media in Latin American countries, it is a given that there will be an influence on how young women see themselves in comparison to Hollywood (Choate, 2005, Encarnation-Garcia, 2001). Previous studies have only looked into a cross-cultural comparison of eating disorders and body image perception. While there is a fair amount of like studies, there hasn’t been any research done looking into how American media is impacting body image satisfaction of young Latin American women.

This research seeks to bring to light new information on how media impacts body image satisfaction and susceptibility to eating disorders. It will look into how young Latina women straddle the line between a culture of hearty meals and Anglo images of the thin ideal so prominently placed across television, billboards, magazines, and throughout the music industry (Molinary, 2007).

PURPOSE OF STUDY

This study is designed to investigate the impact American media is having on young Latin American women ages 16-24 in three Latin American countries. . It is believed that any culture that has been touched by Western media will develop a higher rate of body satisfaction (Choate, 2005). The information obtained in this study is intended to inform the reader of the impact American media is having on young Latin American women and their body image satisfaction.

HYPOTHESIS

This research proposal intends to use applied research occupying evaluative research with summative evaluation. The main area of focus is to evaluate if American media has had an impact on the body image of young Latin American women.

Abstract Hypothesis

Young Latin American women who participate in American media will have a lower body image than those who don’t.

Operational Hypothesis

American media has altered the mind-set of young Latin American women by portraying a picture-perfect woman with out curves that isn’t healthily possible for women to achieve.

RESEARCH METHOD

SAMPLE

Young Latin American women ages 16-24 living in Mexico City, Mexico, Managua, Nicaragua, and Santiago, Chile will be the population used in the research. These three countries will provide a representative sample of Latin America. Their demographic locations span the regions from closest to and furthest from the United States. This will also provide representative socio-economical backgrounds so the population element is not skewed toward a particular socio-economical pool.

The literature review for this study contains little evidence to support the assumed impact American media has on you Latin American women. There are studies aimed at various other races, such as African American, Asian, and Caucasian women. It remains undetermined as to why no studies have been done focusing specifically on Latin Americans.

INSTRUMENTATION

Through random sampling, each group of 500 people will be asked to complete a survey of 39 questions (see appendix A for procedure). This survey will seek to gather a representative sample about related variables and the impact of American media. The first 20 questions are designed to gain an understanding of how each young woman feels about herself, dieting, eating disorders, and influences of pressure. The next 11 questions are designed to obtain information about media interaction and time spent with each of them. And the last eight questions are demographic questions. The intent of the survey is to learn about the impact American media is having on young Latin American women.

For the electronic survey I purpose to use SurveyMonkey.com because it is user-friendly in allowing respondents to skip to questions, and its ability to calculate responses in various ways. Because my survey will be mostly comprised of high school and university students’ age range 16-24, most of them will be very familiar with computers. Access to computers will be available either through the school, computers at home, or local Internet cafes.

Distribution and Collection of Surveys

An electronic survey will help to alleviate one of the challenges of this research design, which is the large demographic area. Contact will be make with schools and universities to identify classes who will be asked to participate in this study. One of the benefits of the survey is its anonymity and therefore encouraging more honest answers.

Professors will be asked to distribute the information at the beginning of class. Participants will have the opportunity to log in to the survey, complete it, and submit it within 45 minutes. Information will be tabulated electronically and sent directly to me, allowing me to collect the information as it comes in.

References

Ahmed, C. (1999, March 1). Workshop on Body Image: Creating or Reinventing a Positive Body Image. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED429961) Retrieved July 6, 2009, from ERIC database.

Bay-Cheng, L., Zucker, A., Stewart, A., & Pomerleau, C. (2002, March 1). Linking Femininity, Weight Concern, and Mental Health among Latina, Black, and White Women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26(1), 36-45. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ665602) Retrieved July 6, 2009, from ERIC database.

Choate, L.H. (2005). Toward a Theoretical Model of Women’s Body Image Resilience. Journal of Counseling & Development, v83, 320-331.

Craig, T., & Bolls, P. (2003, May 23). Cognitive and Emotional Correlates of Social Comparison and Cognitive Dissonance During Exposure to TV Ads. Conference Papers -- International Communication Association, Retrieved July 6, 2009, doi:ica_proceeding_12205.PDF

Concern Over Strong Media Influence on Women’s Body Image (2008). Retrieved October 7, 2008, from http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/107269.php

Dohnt, H., & Tiggemann, M. (2006, April 1). Body Image Concerns in Young Girls: The Role of Peers and Media Prior to Adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35(2), 135-145. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ748227) Retrieved July 6, 2009, from ERIC database.

Encarnacion-Garcia, H. (2001, July 1). Sociocultural Differences in Eating Disordered Behaviors and Body Image Perception: A Comparison between Puerto Rican and American College Women. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED455355) Retrieved July 6, 2009, from ERIC database.

Grabe, S. & Hyde, J. (2008). Concern Over Strong Media Influence on Women’s Body Image. Medical News Today. Retrieved October 9, 2008, from http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/107268.php.

Griffin, E. (2006). A First Look at Communication Theory. New York : McGraw-Hill.

Hurst, Charlice. (1997, June). Sizing Up the Problem: The Politics of Body Image for Women of Color. Third Force, 5(2), 17. Retrieved July 6, 2009, from Ethnic NewsWatch (ENW). (Document ID: 494391331).

Lewis, J.A. (2005). Body image and the American popular culture landscape: the shifting identity of young Latinas in Real Women Have Curves. Retrieved July 6, 2009, from http://www.americanpopularculture.com/archive/film/young_latinas.htm

Media’s effect on girls: body image and gender identity (2008). Retrieved October 9, 2008, from http://mediafamily.org/facts/facts_mediaeffect.shtml

McArthur, L.H., Holbert, D., & Pena, Manuel (2005). An exploration of the attitudinal and perceptual dimensions of body image among male and female adolescents from six Latin American cities. Adolescence, Winter 2005.

Molinary, Rosey (2007) Hijas Americanas: Beauty, Body Image, and Growing Up Latina. Emeryville, CA : Seal Press

Persico, M.. (2009, February 19). From pain to pride. The Boston Banner,p. 1,6-7. Retrieved July 6, 2009, from Ethnic NewsWatch (ENW). (Document ID: 1663307881).Soaps, music videos linked to teens’ body image (2005). Retrieved July 6, 2009, from http://www.lifeclinic.com/fullpage.aspx?prid=526142&type=1

Pelletier, L.C., Dion, S., & Levesque, C. (2004). Can self-determination help protect women against sociocultural influences about body image and reduce their risk of experiencing bulimic symptoms?. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, v23, 61-88.

Prabu, D., Liu, K., & Cortese, J. (2003, May 23). Effect of Thin vs. Plus-Size Models: A Comparison of Body Image Ideals by Gender. Conference Papers -- International Communication Association, Retrieved July 6, 2009, doi:ica_proceeding_11572.PDF

Stevenson, S. (2005). When Tush Comes to Dove. Slate Magazine. Retrieved Oct. 9, 2008, from http://www.slate.com

APPENDIX A

Impact of Media on Body Image of Young Latin American Women Survey

Thank you for your willingness to participate in this research project. Participation in this survey is completely voluntary. The responses you share will be confidential. The purpose of this project is to determine if media (television, music, internet, etc.) have had an impact on young Latin American women living in Latin American countries. Please complete this survey honestly in order that we might obtain the most accurate information possible. We will also collect some demographic information on all respondents at the end of the survey. Your time is appreciated. Thank you!

1. How do you feel about your weight right now?

�� 1 – Very fat

�� 2

�� 3 - Neutral

�� 4

�� 5 – Not at all fat

2. Have you ever been on a diet to lose or gain weight?

�� Yes

�� No

3. If yes, were you happy with the results?

�� Yes

�� No

�� Not sure

4. How attractive do you feel right now?

�� 1 – Very

�� 2

�� 3 - Neutral

�� 4

�� 5 – Not at all

6. How fit do you feel right now?

�� 1 – Very

�� 2

�� 3 - Neutral

�� 4

�� 5 – Not at all

7. How often do you think about your weight?

�� 1 – Very often

�� 2

�� 3 - Neutral

�� 4

�� 5 – Not at all

8. Do you have an eating disorder? (if no, skip to question 11).

�� Yes

�� No

9. If yes, which one?

�� Anorexia

�� Bulimia

�� Other

�� Doesn’t apply

10. How long have you had an eating disorder?

�� 0-2 years

�� 3-5 years

�� 6-9 years

�� 10+ years

11. How dissatisfied are you feeling about your body shape right now?

�� 1 – Very

�� 2

�� 3 - Neutral

�� 4

�� 5 – Not at all

12. How happy do you feel right now?

�� 1 – Very

�� 2

�� 3 - Neutral

�� 4

�� 5 – Not at all

13. Would changing your body size make you happy?

�� Yes

�� No

�� Not sure

14. What age do you think you became aware of your body image?

�� 6-10

�� 11-15

�� 16-19

�� 20s

�� Unknown

15. Who influences how you feel about yourself? (check as many as apply).

�� Myself

�� Peers

�� Family

�� Media

�� Unknown

16. Rank in order from 1 to 5 who influences you the most.

�� Myself

�� Peers

�� Family

�� Media

�� Unknown

17. Do you feel pressured by media to have a certain body image?

�� 1 – Very

�� 2

�� 3 - Neutral

�� 4

�� 5 – Not at all

18. Do you feel pressured by family to have a certain body image?

�� 1 – Very

�� 2

�� 3 - Neutral

�� 4

�� 5 – Not at all

19. Culturally, what is the ideal woman’s size in your country?

�� Size 0-2

�� Size 3-5

�� Size 6-8

�� Size 9-11

�� Size 12-14

�� Size 15+

20. Do you feel pressured the culturally ideal body image in your country?

�� 1 – Very

�� 2

�� 3 - Neutral

�� 4

�� 5 – Not at all

INFORMATION ABOUT INTERACTION WITH MEDIA

21. I have a computer at home.

�� Yes

�� No

22. I have Internet access at home.

�� Yes

�� No

23. How many hours per week do you spend online?

�� Less than 5

�� 6-10

�� 11-20

�� 21-30

�� 31-40

�� More than 40

24. I have a television at home.

�� Yes

�� No

25. How much television do you watch?

�� 0-2 hours per week

�� 3-5 hours per week

�� 6-9 hours per week

�� 10-12 hours per week

�� 13-15 hours per week

�� 16-19 hours per week

�� 20 or more hours per week

26. Of that time watching television, how much of it is spent watching English-speaking programs (movies, music videos, etc.)?

�� 0-2 hours per week

�� 3-5 hours per week

�� 6-9 hours per week

�� 10-12 hours per week

�� 13-15 hours per week

�� 16-19 hours per week

�� 20 or more hours per week

27. Of that time watching television, how much of it is spent watching English-speaking programs (movies, music videos, etc.)?

�� 0-2 hours per week

�� 3-5 hours per week

�� 6-9 hours per week

�� 10-12 hours per week

�� 13-15 hours per week

�� 16-19 hours per week

�� 20 or more hours per week

28. How interested are you in television programs made in different countries

	1- Not interested	2	3- Neutral	4	5- Very interested
Made in USA
Made in South America
Made in other Spanish-speaking countries

29. What programs do you watch most frequently? (mark five)

_____ News casts (local, national, and/or international)
_____ Action/adventure
_____ Comedy
_____ Horror
_____ Recent Hollywood movies
_____ Sports/sporting events
_____ Cartoons
_____ Classic Hollywood movies
_____ Domestic telenovelas
_____ Drama
_____ Game shows/contests
_____ Weather
_____ Nature & wildlife
_____ Music videos
_____ Talk shows/interviews
_____ Documentaries
_____ Variety shows
_____ Reality shows
_____ Health & medicine
_____ Music concerts
_____ Science fiction
_____ Science & technology
_____ Business & finance
_____ Fashion & style
_____ International telenovelas
_____ Politics
_____ Cooking
_____ Educational
_____ Home decoration
_____ Theater/concerts/operas
_____ Travel
_____ Home shopping
_____ Religion

30. How much time do you spend reading magazines and/or newspapers?

�� 0-2 hours per week

�� 3-5 hours per week

�� 6-9 hours per week

�� 10-12 hours per week

�� 13-15 hours per week

�� 16-19 hours per week

�� 20 or more hours per week

31. What kind of magazines/newspapers do you read? (mark three)

_____ Fashion & Style

_____ Health & Fitness

_____ Educational

_____ Nature & Wildlife

_____ Business & Finance

_____ Local or National News

_____ Cooking & Nutrition

_____ Religion

_____ Sports

_____ Travel

DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

32. How old are you?

�� 16-17

�� 18-19

�� 20-21

�� 22-23

�� 24-25

33. How tall are you? __________

34. How much do you weigh? __________

35. Where do you live?

�� Santiago, Chile

�� Managua, Nicaragua

�� Mexico City, Mexico

36. Are you in school? (if no, skip to question 37).

�� Yes

�� No

37. If yes, which of the following?

�� High school

�� First-year university

�� Second-year university

�� Third-year university

�� Fourth-year university

38. Are you working?

�� Yes

�� No

39. If yes, which of the following?

�� Full-time (40+ hours per week)

�� Part-time (less that 40 hours per week)

Sunday, July 12, 2009

My first shot at a lit review! Thesis here I come! :D

AMERICAN MEDIA IMPACT ON YOUNG WOMEN IN LATIN AMERICAN COUNTRIES

Literature Review, Hypothesis, & Reference List

Brandy A. Lee

ORGL 501: Methods of Organizational Research

Dr. Adrian Popa

July 11, 2009

AMERICAN MEDIA IMPACT ON YOUNG WOMEN IN LATIN AMERICAN COUNTRIES

Introduction

For centuries the image of a large, fairly obese woman has been a symbol of health and fertility in Hispanic cultures throughout the continents of North and South America (Lewis, 2005). This is evidenced in everything from sculpture, to fertility goddesses, to paintings, to the woman as she is today. In countries where more has been better, women aren’t afraid of being robust. However, time, technology, and the American media are all taking affect on history, and they may soon re-write the books of what a Hispanic woman is supposed to look like.

1) What is an acceptable body size?

2) Do you compare yourself to women you see in the media, namely those from American media?

This research will add to current information that American media has altered the mind-set of young women by portraying a picture-perfect, woman with out curves, who most often doesn't exist (Lewis, 2005; Barton, 2006; Bay-Cheng, Zucker, Stewart, & Pomerleau, 2002); Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006;Encarnacion-Garcia, 2001; McArthur, Holbert, & Pena, 2005). It will also add to limited research about how the American media impacts body image of young women in Latin American countries.

Literature Review

Femininity is interpreted many ways such as: body shape, size, and proportions; qualities such as appearance; more specifically voice and complexion; and aspects of how one dresses, accessorizes, and does their hair (Bay-Cheng, Zucker, Stewart, and Pomerleau, 2002). It’s the picture of self, a body image, that is carried in the mind’s eye, and it goes beyond pounds or inches (Ahmed, 1999). Many of these characteristics and the current glamorization of thinness, however, are only a recent change within the last century or so (Ahmed, 1999). Taking a step back into time will help people better understand how beauty and attractiveness change over time.

Historically, thin was not always in. An examination of artwork throughout history shows quite a different standard of beauty than is seen in 2009. Early paintings and statues show women “with full breasts, curvaceous hips, well developed arms and legs, and large waists with rounded stomachs” (Ahmed, 1999). According to Ahmed, things have started to shift since Victorian times. In the early 1900’s, it was the hourglass shape that was in. In the 1950’s, it was the full hips and breasts of Marilyn Monroe, which would be considered fat in today’s standards. During the 1970’s there was a shift to a more linear, straight line of fashions. Then in the 80’s and 90’s the models got younger and thinner than any time in the past. (Ahmed, 1999).

Historically, the Latino community in particular has viewed a curvier, larger body size as acceptable (Lewis, 2005; Encarnation-Garcia, 2001). Additionally, art has depicted obese women as a sign of health and fertility, where an overly thin woman was seen as “la fea” (ugly). However, studies suggest that any culture or ethnic group where the Western thin ideal is adopted as the standard of beauty can be influenced (Choate). Many billboards in Mexico, Central, and South America where this is seen feature mostly upper class looking, blue-eyed blondes, symbolically linking them with status, and European and/or “Anglo” looking women (Lewis, 2005). Research done in Australia suggests American shows such as Desperate Housewives and other TV soap operas influence how young girls see themselves and make them desperate for a body size few can healthily achieve (Persico, 2005; Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006). Ahmed states, “Large breasts, narrow hips and no stomach is unattainable by 95% of grown women” (1999).

All of this has been portrayed through images in the media (movies, television, music, etc). The average woman in the United States is 5’4” and weighs 142 pounds (Choate). Slate.com reporter Seth Stevenson states that models weigh and average of 23% less than the average woman. Twenty years ago, models only weighed an average of eight percent less (2005). Craig and Bolls write in their paper Cognitive and Emotional Correlates of Social Comparison And Cognitive Dissonance During Exposure to TV Ads that while viewing the images a woman begins to compare herself and when she doesn’t measure up she begins to experience cognitive dissonance (2003; Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006).

Studies done in the 2000s show a larger influence of media on body dissatisfaction and from the 1990s. Grabe & Hyde have revealed that is doesn’t matter what type of media exposure these women get, if the image is appearance-focused, it’s going to affect them (2008; Prabu, Cortese, & Liu, 2003). It has been shown that this can adversely affect a woman’s quality of life, because of the amount of money, time, and energy spent on beauty enhancement, which can restrict her from developing other aspects of her identity (Choate). There is also the factor of vulnerable women, who are influenced more by the thin media portrayals than others (Prabu, Cortese, & Liu, 2003).

The Socio-Cultural Tradition is based on the premise that as people talk, they produce and reproduce culture (Griffin, 2006). This tradition bridges the gap between us and them when perceptual worlds collide (Griffin, 2006). Researchers contend that body image issues stem from messages conveyed by various forces such as “cultural milieu, personal interactions, religious beliefs, print and film media, and social expectations” (McArthur, Holbert, & Pena, 2005). It is assumed the media play a leading role in setting “the normative standards for thinness, attractiveness, and beauty” (Prabu, Cortese, & Liu, 2003; Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006).

Furthermore, in Sociocultural Differences in Eating Disordered Behaviors and Body Image Perception: A Comparison between Puerto Rican and American College Women Encarnation-Garcia only makes a comparison between American and Puerto Rican women and eating disorders. There is no mention of the impact of media on these decisions. However, it does highlight that, “Risk factors for eating disorders are greater among minority females who are younger, heavier, better educated, and more identified with American, middle-class values (Encarnation-Garcia, 2001). Choate’s statement that anyone who has contact with Western media will be impacted is therefore bolstered. Encarnation-Garcia adds that this exposure may lead to the development of pathological eating attitudes and abnormal eating behaviors (2001).

Importance of Study

Given the growing influence of American media in Latin American countries, it is a given that there will be an influence on how young women see themselves in comparison to Hollywood (Choate, 2005, Encarnation-Garcia, 2001). Previous studies have only looked into a cross-cultural comparison of eating disorders and body image perception. While there are a fair amount of like studies, there hasn’t been any research done looking into how American media is impacting body image satisfaction of young Latin American women.

Purpose of Study

This study is designed to investigate the impact American media is having on young Latin American women ages 16-24 in three South American countries. It is believed that any culture that has been touched by Western media will develop a higher rate of body satisfaction. It is hoped that the information obtained in this study will assist in recognizing the impact American media is having on young Latin American women and their body image.

References

Ahmed, C. (1999, March 1). Workshop on Body Image: Creating or Reinventing a Positive Body Image. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED429961) Retrieved July 6, 2009, from ERIC database.

Choate, L.H. (2005). Toward a Theoretical Model of Women’s Body Image Resilience. Journal of Counseling & Development, v83, 320-331.

Concern Over Strong Media Influence on Women’s Body Image (2008). Retrieved October 7, 2008, from http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/107269.php

Grabe, S. & Hyde, J. (2008). Concern Over Strong Media Influence on Women’s Body Image. Medical News Today. Retrieved October 9, 2008, from http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/107268.php.

Griffin, E. (2006). A First Look at Communication Theory. New York : McGraw-Hill.

Media’s effect on girls: body image and gender identity (2008). Retrieved October 9, 2008, from http://mediafamily.org/facts/facts_mediaeffect.shtml

McArthur, L.H., Holbert, D., & Pena, Manuel (2005). An exploration of the attitudinal and perceptual dimensions of body image among male and female adolescents from six Latin American cities. Adolescence, Winter 2005.

Molinary, Rosey (2007) Hijas Americanas: Beauty, Body Image, and Growing Up Latina. Emeryville, CA : Seal Press

Stevenson, S. (2005). When Tush Comes to Dove. Slate Magazine. Retrieved Oct. 9, 2008, from http://www.slate.com